The administrative centralization achieved during the tenth century disappeared with the collapse of the (second) Umayyad caliphate. The conquest of Toledo in 1085 was partly the result of the political fragmentation of al-Andalus that took place during the eleventh century.
Political unity, general stability, economic flourishing, and cultural achievements were some of the traits of the tenth century, although the minority of the third Umayyad caliph and the military reforms carried out by his powerful chamberlain, al-Man ṣ ūr ibn Abi ʿAmir, eventually opened the door to civil war. 912 –961), succeeded in regaining control of al-Andalus and proclaimed himself caliph in order to give a firmer basis to his rule and to counteract the danger represented by the establishment of a F ā ṭimid (Sh ī ʿ ī) caliphate in North Africa, while taking advantage at the same time of the decline of the Abbasid caliphate in the East.
The eighth Umayyad ruler, ʿAbd al-Ra ḥm ān III (r. During the ninth century, the Umayyads fought hard to maintain their power in the Iberian Peninsula, shaken by the attempts of Arabs, Berbers, and local converts to establish autonomous political governments. The new Umayyad emirate had Cordova as its capital. 756 –788), escaped from the massacre of his family and with the help of the Umayyad clients managed to establish himself as ruler of al-Andalus. When the latter's rule was put to an end by the new dynasty of the Abbasids (who moved their capital to Baghdad), a member of the fallen dynasty, ʿAbd al-Ra ḥm ān I (r. The Muslim conquest of al-Andalus had taken place during the Umayyad caliphate, with its seat in Damascus, and some of the settlers in the Iberian Peninsula were clients of the Umayyads. A major shift in the balance of power between Muslims and Christians occurred in 1085, when Toledo, the former Visigothic capital, was lost forever to the Muslims when it fell into the hands of the king of Castile, Alfonso VI. During the Umayyad period (eighth –tenth centuries), Muslims ruled most of the regions of the Iberian Peninsula, with the exception of part of the lands situated north of the river Duero and south of the Pyrenees, where Christians managed to establish small independent kingdoms. That territory varied through the centuries. Al-Andalus was the name used by the Muslim population of the Iberian Peninsula for the territory that was under Muslim rule from the times of the conquest in 711 ce until the fall of the Nasrid kingdom of Granada in 1492.
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